C++ Programming Code Examples

delay() function is used to hold the program's execution for given number of milliseconds, it is declared in dos.h header file. There can be many instances when we need to create a delay in our programs. C++ provides us with an easy way to do so. We can use a delay() function for this purpose in our code. We can run the code after a specific time in C++ using delay() function. how many milliseconds to delay The function takes one parameter which is unsigned integer. Here, void suggests that this function returns nothing. 'delay' is the function name.

putimage puts the bit image previously saved with getimage back onto the screen, with the upper left corner of the image placed at (left,top). bitmap points to the area in memory where the source image is stored. The op parameter to putimage specifies a combination operator that controls how the color for each destination pixel onscreen is computed, based on the pixel already onscreen and the corresponding source pixel in memory. X coordinate of top left corner of the specified rectangular area Y coordinate of top left corner of the specified rectangular area pointer to the bitmap image in memory operator for putimage. The enumeration putimage_ops, as defined in graphics.h, gives names to these operators. • COPY_PUT 0 Copy • XOR_PUT 1 Exclusive or • OR_PUT 2 Inclusive or • AND_PUT 3 And • NOT_PUT 4 Copy the inverse of the source In other words, COPY_PUT copies the source bitmap image onto the screen, XOR_PUT XORs the source image with the image already onscreen, OR_PUT ORs the source image with that onscreen, and so on. This function does not return any value.

The header file graphics.h contains imagesize() function which returns the number of bytes required to store a bit-image. This function is used when we are using getimage. imagesize() function returns the required memory area to store an image in bytes. imagesize() function returns the number of bytes needed to store the top-left corner of the screen at left, top and the bottom-right corner at right, bottom. This function is usually used in conjunction with the getimage() function. The imagesize() function only works in graphics mode. X coordinate of top left corner Y coordinate of top left corner X coordinate of bottom right corner Y coordinate of bottom right corner left, top, right, and bottom define the area of the screen in which image is stored.

getimage() function copy a specific portion into memory. This specific image would be any bit image like rectangle, circle or anything else. getimage() copies an image from the screen to memory. Left, top, right, and bottom define the screen area to which the rectangle is copied. Bitmap points to the area in memory where the bit image is stored. The first two words of this area are used for the width and height of the rectangle; the remainder holds the image itself. X coordinate of top left corner Y coordinate of top left corner X coordinate of bottom right corner Y coordinate of bottom right corner points to the area in memory where the bit image is stored getimage() function saves a bit image of specified region into memory, region can be any rectangle. This function does not return any value.

Ellipse is used to draw an ellipse (x,y) are coordinates of center of the ellipse, startangle is the starting angle, end angle is the ending angle, and fifth and sixth parameters specifies the X and Y radius of the ellipse. To draw a complete ellipse strangles and end angle should be 0 and 360 respectively. x-coordinate of center of the ellipse y-coordinate of center of the ellipse starting angle ending angle specifies the X radius of the ellipse specifies the Y radius of the ellipse Making a circle and an ellipse in C can be done easily. How to do is, first initialize a graph with two parameters and a path to the "bgi" folder in your system. To make an ellipse on the screen, all we need to do is call the ellipse() function with six numbers as the coordinates of the ellipse. These six co-ordinates decide the location of the ellipse, angles, and radius from X-axis and Y-axis. We would need to include graphics.h file in your program.

The kbhit is basically the Keyboard Hit. This function is present at conio.h header file. So for using this, we have to include this header file into our code. The functionality of kbhit() is that, when a key is pressed it returns nonzero value, otherwise returns zero. kbhit() is used to determine if a key has been pressed or not. If a key has been pressed then it returns a non zero value otherwise returns zero. Function returns true (non-zero) if there is a character in the input buffer, otherwise false. Note : kbhit() is not a standard library function and should be avoided.

Function moves the current position(cp) to (x,y). The header file graphics.h contains moveto() function which changes the current position to (x, y). Means if you want to move a point from the current position to a new position then you can use this function. outtext is the function used to display the given string on graphics mode. It uses the font style set by settextstyle and the current position. The current position can be changed with moveto function. Alternatively you can use outtextxy function which takes xpos, ypos and string for displaying at a particular location. outtextxy does the work of both moveto and outtext functions. X coordinate of the point Y coordinate of the point moveto() function moves the current position to the x, y position relative to the current viewport.

The header file graphics.h contains line() function which is used to draw a line from a point(x1, y1) to point(x2, y2) i.e. (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) are end points of the line. The function line() draws a line on the graphics screen between two specified points. So this function requires four parameters namely x1, y1, x2, and y2 to represent two points. This function draws a line from (x1, y1) coordinates to (x2, y2) coordinates on the graphics screen. X coordinate of first point Y coordinate of first point. X coordinate of second point. Y coordinate of second point. You can change "linestyle", "pattern", "thickness" of the line by setlinestyle() function.

The getch() is a predefined non-standard function that is defined in conio.h header file. It is mostly used by the Dev C/C++, MS- DOS's compilers like Turbo C to hold the screen until the user passes a single value to exit from the console screen. It can also be used to read a single byte character or string from the keyboard and then print. It does not hold any parameters. It has no buffer area to store the input character in a program. The getch() function does not accept any parameter from the user. It returns the ASCII value of the key pressed by the user as an input. We use a getch() function in a C/ C++ program to hold the output screen for some time until the user passes a key from the keyboard to exit the console screen. Using getch() function, we can hide the input character provided by the users in the ATM PIN, password, etc. • getch() method pauses the Output Console until a key is pressed. • It does not use any buffer to store the input character. • The entered character is immediately returned without waiting for the enter key. • The entered character does not show up on the console. • The getch() method can be used to accept hidden inputs like password, ATM pin numbers, etc.

In while loop, condition is evaluated first and if it returns true then the statements inside while loop execute, this happens repeatedly until the condition returns false. When condition returns false, the control comes out of loop and jumps to the next statement in the program after while loop. The important point to note when using while loop is that we need to use increment or decrement statement inside while loop so that the loop variable gets changed on each iteration, and at some point condition returns false. This way we can end the execution of while loop otherwise the loop would execute indefinitely. A while loop that never stops is said to be the infinite while loop, when we give the condition in such a way so that it never returns false, then the loops becomes infinite and repeats itself indefinitely. • A while loop evaluates the condition • If the condition evaluates to true, the code inside the while loop is executed. • The condition is evaluated again. • This process continues until the condition is false. • When the condition evaluates to false, the loop terminates. Do not forget to increase the variable used in the condition, otherwise the loop will never end!

In computer programming, we use the if statement to run a block code only when a certain condition is met. An if statement can be followed by an optional else statement, which executes when the boolean expression is false. There are three forms of if...else statements in C++: • if statement, • if...else statement, • if...else if...else statement, The if statement evaluates the condition inside the parentheses ( ). If the condition evaluates to true, the code inside the body of if is executed. If the condition evaluates to false, the code inside the body of if is skipped. The if..else statement evaluates the condition inside the parenthesis. If the condition evaluates true, the code inside the body of if is executed, the code inside the body of else is skipped from execution. If the condition evaluates false, the code inside the body of else is executed, the code inside the body of if is skipped from execution. The if...else statement is used to execute a block of code among two alternatives. However, if we need to make a choice between more than two alternatives, we use the if...else if...else statement. • If condition1 evaluates to true, the code block 1 is executed. • If condition1 evaluates to false, then condition2 is evaluated. • If condition2 is true, the code block 2 is executed. • If condition2 is false, the code block 3 is executed. There can be more than one else if statement but only one if and else statements. In C/C++ if-else-if ladder helps user decide from among multiple options. The C/C++ if statements are executed from the top down. As soon as one of the conditions controlling the if is true, the statement associated with that if is executed, and the rest of the C else-if ladder is bypassed. If none of the conditions is true, then the final else statement will be executed. Working of the if-else-if ladder: 1. Control falls into the if block. 2. The flow jumps to Condition 1. 3. Condition is tested. If Condition yields true, goto Step 4. If Condition yields false, goto Step 5. 4. The present block is executed. Goto Step 7. 5. The flow jumps to Condition 2. If Condition yields true, goto step 4. If Condition yields false, goto Step 6. 6. The flow jumps to Condition 3. If Condition yields true, goto step 4. If Condition yields false, execute else block. Goto Step 7. 7. Exits the if-else-if ladder. • The if else ladder statement in C++ programming language is used to check set of conditions in sequence. • This is useful when we want to selectively executes one code block(out of many) based on certain conditions. • It allows us to check for multiple condition expressions and execute different code blocks for more than two conditions. • A condition expression is tested only when all previous if conditions in if-else ladder is false. • If any of the conditional expression evaluates to true, then it will execute the corresponding code block and exits whole if-else ladder.

rectangle() is used to draw a rectangle. Coordinates of left top and right bottom corner are required to draw the rectangle. left specifies the X-coordinate of top left corner, top specifies the Y-coordinate of top left corner, right specifies the X-coordinate of right bottom corner, bottom specifies the Y-coordinate of right bottom corner. X coordinate of top left corner. Y coordinate of top left corner. X coordinate of bottom right corner. Y coordinate of bottom right corner. To create a rectangle, you have to pass the four parameters in this function. The two parameters represent the left and top upper left corner. Similarly, the right bottom parameter represents the lower right corner of the rectangle. This function does not return any value.

To create a program in Graphics Mode, the first step would be to include the header file graphics.h. This file is required for Graphics programming. After this, the graphics have to be initialized. C Language supports 16 Bit's MS-DOS environment. Initializing the Graphics mode is to call various functions, one such is called initgraph. initgraph initializes the graphics system by loading a graphics driver from disk (or validating a registered driver), and putting the system into graphics mode. To start the graphics system, first call the initgraph function. initgraph loads the graphics driver and puts the system into graphics mode. You can tell initgraph to use a particular graphics driver and mode, or to autodetect the attached video adapter at run time and pick the corresponding driver. If you tell initgraph to autodetect, it calls detectgraph to select a graphics driver and mode. initgraph also resets all graphics settings to their defaults (current position, palette, color, viewport, and so on) and resets graphresult to 0. This is an integer that indicates that the graphics driver has been used. It is also an integer value that detects the available graphics driver and initializes the graphics mode according to its highest resolution. This is the path of the directory that first searches the initgraph function graphics driver. If the graphics driver is not available then the system searches it in the current directory. It is necessary to pass the correct value of the three parameters in the initgraph function or else an unpredictable output is obtained. To initialize Graphics mode, you only have to write two lines. Here, we have taken two integer variables 'd' and 'm'. Here, DETECT is an enumeration type that identifies and identifies the proper graphics driver. The initgraph function has to pass the address of both the variables. You can see in the example that we have given a space at the position of the third variable. This means that if you do not know the driver's path then you can leave it blank. The compiler will auto-detect the path. initgraph always sets the internal error code; on success, it sets the code to 0. If an error occurred, *graphdriver is set to -2, -3, -4, or -5, and graphresult returns the same value as listed below: • grNotDetected -2 Cannot detect a graphics card • grFileNotFound -3 Cannot find driver file • grInvalidDriver -4 Invalid driver • grNoLoadMem -5 Insufficient memory to load driver

Allocate memory block. Allocates a block of size bytes of memory, returning a pointer to the beginning of the block. The content of the newly allocated block of memory is not initialized, remaining with indeterminate values. If size is zero, the return value depends on the particular library implementation (it may or may not be a null pointer), but the returned pointer shall not be dereferenced. Malloc function in C++ is used to allocate a specified size of the block of memory dynamically uninitialized. It allocates the memory to the variable on the heap and returns the void pointer pointing to the beginning address of the memory block. The values in the memory block allocated remain uninitialized and indeterminate. In case the size specified in the function is zero then pointer returned must not be dereferenced as it can be a null pointer, and in this case, behavior depends on particular library implementation. When a memory block is allocated dynamically memory is allocated on the heap but the pointer is allocated to the stack. Size of the memory block, in bytes. size_t is an unsigned integral type. On success, a pointer to the memory block allocated by the function. The type of this pointer is always void*, which can be cast to the desired type of data pointer in order to be dereferenceable. If the function failed to allocate the requested block of memory, a null pointer is returned. There are a lot of advantages to using the malloc method in one's application: • Dynamic Memory allocation: Usually we create arrays at compile time in C++, the size of such arrays is fixed. In the case at run time we do not use all the space or extra space is required for more elements to be inserted in the array, then this leads to improper memory management or segmentation fault error. • Heap memory: Local arrays that are defined at compile time are allocated on the stack, which has lagged in memory management in case the number of data increases. Thus one needs to allocate memory out of the stack, thus malloc comes into the picture as it allocates the memory location on the heap and returns a pointer on the stack pointing to the starting address of the array type memory being allocated. • Variable-length array: This function helps to allocate memory for an array whose size can be defined at the runtime. Thus one can create the number of blocks as much as required at run time. • Better lifetime: Variable created using malloc method is proved to have a better life than the local arrays as a lifetime of local arrays depends on the scope they are being defined and cannot access out of their scope. But variables or arrays created using malloc exist till they are freed. This is of great importance for various data structures such as linked list, binary heap, etc. • The new operator constructs an object, i.e., it calls the constructor to initialize an object while malloc() function does not call the constructor. The new operator invokes the constructor, and the delete operator invokes the destructor to destroy the object. This is the biggest difference between the malloc() and new. • The new is an operator, while malloc() is a predefined function in the stdlib header file. • The operator new can be overloaded while the malloc() function cannot be overloaded. • If the sufficient memory is not available in a heap, then the new operator will throw an exception while the malloc() function returns a NULL pointer. • In the new operator, we need to specify the number of objects to be allocated while in malloc() function, we need to specify the number of bytes to be allocated. • In the case of a new operator, we have to use the delete operator to deallocate the memory. But in the case of malloc() function, we have to use the free() function to deallocate the memory. Only the storage referenced by the returned pointer is modified. No other storage locations are accessed by the call. If the function reuses the same unit of storage released by a deallocation function (such as free or realloc), the functions are synchronized in such a way that the deallocation happens entirely before the next allocation. No-throw guarantee: this function never throws exceptions.

The header file graphics.h contains setfillstyle() function which sets the current fill pattern and fill color. Current fill pattern and fill color is used to fill the area. setfillstyle sets the current fill pattern and fill color. To set a user-defined fill pattern, do not give a pattern of 12 (USER_FILL) to setfillstyle; instead, call setfillpattern. Specify the color • BLACK – 0 • BLUE – 1 • GREEN – 2 • CYAN – 3 • RED – 4 • MAGENTA – 5 • BROWN – 6 • LIGHTGRAY – 7 • DARKGRAY – 8 • LIGHTBLUE – 9 • LIGHTGREEN – 10 • LIGHTCYAN – 11 • LIGHTRED – 12 • LIGHTMAGENTA – 13 • YELLOW – 14 • WHITE – 15 Specify the pattern • EMPTY_FILL – 0 • SOLID_FILL – 1 • LINE_FILL – 2 • LTSLASH_FILL – 3 • SLASH_FILL – 4 • BKSLASH_FILL – 5 • LTBKSLASH_FILL – 6 • HATCH_FILL – 7 • XHATCH_FILL – 8 • INTERLEAVE_FILL – 9 • WIDE_DOT_FILL – 10 • CLOSE_DOT_FILL – 11 • USER_FILL – 12 If invalid input is passed to setfillstyle, graphresult returns -1(grError), and the current fill pattern and fill color remain unchanged. The EMPTY_FILL style is like a solid fill using the current background color (which is set by setbkcolor). This function does not return any value.

In the C programming language, there is an option to create an arc of a circle of a given radius with a given center coordinates and degree of the arc. The arc() function is used to create an arc. This arc function is included in graphics.h library in C which contains methods that can draw figures on the output screen. The function to make an arc(), accepts five parameters for x, y co-ordinate, starting angle, end angle and radius. This will make the arc will all the values are fine. The Example below takes care of all these things as it have four arcs implemented. x coordinate of the center of the arc y coordinate of the center of the arc starting angle of arc ending angle of arc radius of the arc The header file graphics.h contains arc() function which draws an arc with center at (x, y) and given radius. start_angle is the starting point of angle and end_angle is the ending point of the angle. The value of the angle can vary from 0 to 360 degree.

The header file graphics.h contains getmaxy() function which returns the maximum Y coordinate for current graphics mode and driver. getmaxy returns the maximum (screen-relative) y value for the current graphics driver and mode. For example, on a CGA in 320*200 mode, getmaxy returns 199. getmaxy is invaluable for centering, determining the boundaries of a region onscreen, and so on. getmaxy() returns the maximum y screen coordinate. getmaxy() function is used to fetch the maximum Y coordinate for the current graphics mode or driver.

Function lineto() draws a line from the current position (CP) to the point (x, y), you can get current position using getx and gety function. Where, (x, y) are the coordinates upto which the line will be drawn from previous point. X coordinate of the point Y coordinate of the point Use getx() and gety() to get the current position.

The header file graphics.h contains getmaxx() function which returns the maximum X coordinate for current graphics mode and driver. getmaxx() returns the maximum (screen-relative) x value for the current graphics driver and mode. For example, on a CGA in 320*200 mode, getmaxx returns 319. getmaxx is invaluable for centering, determining the boundaries of a region onscreen, and so on. getmaxx returns the maximum x screen coordinate. getmaxx() function is used to fetch the maximum X coordinate for the current graphics mode or driver.

floodfill function is used to fill an enclosed area. Current fill pattern and fill color is used to fill the area.(x, y) is any point on the screen if (x,y) lies inside the area then inside will be filled otherwise outside will be filled, border specifies the color of boundary of area. To change fill pattern and fill color use setfillstyle. X coordinate of the point within the enclosed area to be filled Y coordinate of the point within the enclosed area to be filled specify the color int values corresponding to colors: • BLACK 0 • BLUE 1 • GREEN 2 • CYAN 3 • RED 4 • MAGENTA 5 • BROWN 6 • LIGHTGRAY 7 • DARKGRAY 8 • LIGHTBLUE 9 • LIGHTGREEN 10 • LIGHTCYAN 11 • LIGHTRED 12 • LIGHTMAGENTA 13 • YELLOW 14 • WHITE 15

A program shall contain a global function named main, which is the designated start of the program in hosted environment. main() function is the entry point of any C++ program. It is the point at which execution of program is started. When a C++ program is executed, the execution control goes directly to the main() function. Every C++ program have a main() function. void is a keyword in C++ language, void means nothing, whenever we use void as a function return type then that function nothing return. here main() function no return any value. main is a name of function which is predefined function in C++ library. In place of void we can also use int return type of main() function, at that time main() return integer type value. 1) It cannot be used anywhere in the program a) in particular, it cannot be called recursively b) its address cannot be taken 2) It cannot be predefined and cannot be overloaded: effectively, the name main in the global namespace is reserved for functions (although it can be used to name classes, namespaces, enumerations, and any entity in a non-global namespace, except that a function called "main" cannot be declared with C language linkage in any namespace). 3) It cannot be defined as deleted or (since C++11) declared with C language linkage, constexpr (since C++11), consteval (since C++20), inline, or static. 4) The body of the main function does not need to contain the return statement: if control reaches the end of main without encountering a return statement, the effect is that of executing return 0;. 5) Execution of the return (or the implicit return upon reaching the end of main) is equivalent to first leaving the function normally (which destroys the objects with automatic storage duration) and then calling std::exit with the same argument as the argument of the return. (std::exit then destroys static objects and terminates the program). 6) (since C++14) The return type of the main function cannot be deduced (auto main() {... is not allowed). 7) (since C++20) The main function cannot be a coroutine.

#include is a way of including a standard or user-defined file in the program and is mostly written at the beginning of any C/C++ program. This directive is read by the preprocessor and orders it to insert the content of a user-defined or system header file into the following program. These files are mainly imported from an outside source into the current program. The process of importing such files that might be system-defined or user-defined is known as File Inclusion. This type of preprocessor directive tells the compiler to include a file in the source code program. Including using " ": When using the double quotes(" "), the preprocessor access the current directory in which the source "header_file" is located. This type is mainly used to access any header files of the user's program or user-defined files. Including using <>: While importing file using angular brackets(<>), the the preprocessor uses a predetermined directory path to access the file. It is mainly used to access system header files located in the standard system directories. Header File or Standard files: This is a file which contains C/C++ function declarations and macro definitions to be shared between several source files. Functions like the printf(), scanf(), cout, cin and various other input-output or other standard functions are contained within different header files. So to utilise those functions, the users need to import a few header files which define the required functions. User-defined files: These files resembles the header files, except for the fact that they are written and defined by the user itself. This saves the user from writing a particular function multiple times. Once a user-defined file is written, it can be imported anywhere in the program using the #include preprocessor. • In #include directive, comments are not recognized. So in case of #include <a//b>, a//b is treated as filename. • In #include directive, backslash is considered as normal text not escape sequence. So in case of #include <a\nb>, a\nb is treated as filename. • You can use only comment after filename otherwise it will give error.

setcolor() function is used to set the foreground color in graphics mode. After resetting the foreground color you will get the text or any other shape which you want to draw in that color. setcolor sets the current drawing color to color, which can range from 0 to getmaxcolor. The current drawing color is the value to which pixels are set when lines, and so on are drawn. The drawing colors shown below are available for the CGA and EGA, respectively. specify the color setcolor() functions contains only one argument that is color. It may be the color name enumerated in graphics.h header file or number assigned with that color. This function does not return any value. INT VALUES corresponding to Colors: • BLACK 0 • BLUE 1 • GREEN 2 • CYAN 3 • RED 4 • MAGENTA 5 • BROWN 6 • LIGHTGRAY 7 • DARKGRAY 8 • LIGHTBLUE 9 • LIGHTGREEN 10 • LIGHTCYAN 11 • LIGHTRED 12 • LIGHTMAGENTA 13 • YELLOW 14 • WHITE 15