C++ Programming Code Examples
C++ > Data Structures and Algorithm Analysis in C++ Code Examples
IntCell class with a few extras, with a test program
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/* IntCell class with a few extras, with a test program */
#include <iostream.h>
/**
* A class for simulating an integer memory cell.
*/
class IntCell
{
public:
/* 1*/ explicit IntCell( int initialValue = 0 )
/* 2*/ : storedValue( initialValue ) { }
/* 3*/ int read( ) const
/* 4*/ { return storedValue; }
/* 5*/ void write( int x )
/* 6*/ { storedValue = x; }
private:
/* 7*/ int storedValue;
};
int main( )
{
IntCell m;
m.write( 5 );
cout << "Cell contents: " << m.read( ) << endl;
return 0;
}
Standard Output Stream (cout) in C++
The cout is a predefined object of ostream class. It is connected with the standard output device, which is usually a display screen. The cout is used in conjunction with stream insertion operator (<<) to display the output on a console. On most program environments, the standard output by default is the screen, and the C++ stream object defined to access it is cout.
Syntax for cout in C++
cout << var_name;
//or
cout << "Some String";
<<
is the insertion operator
var_name
is usually a variable, but can also be an array element or elements of containers like vectors, lists, maps, etc.
The "c" in cout refers to "character" and "out" means "output". Hence cout means "character output".
The cout object is used along with the insertion operator << in order to display a stream of characters.
The << operator can be used more than once with a combination of variables, strings, and manipulators.
cout is used for displaying data on the screen. The operator << called as insertion operator or put to operator. The Insertion operator can be overloaded. Insertion operator is similar to the printf() operation in C. cout is the object of ostream class. Data flow direction is from variable to output device. Multiple outputs can be displayed using cout.
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/* standard output stream (cout) in C++ language */
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
string str = "Do not interrupt me";
char ch = 'm';
// use cout with write()
cout.write(str,6);
cout << endl;
// use cout with put()
cout.put(ch);
return 0;
}
Return Statement in C++
A return statement ends the processing of the current function and returns control to the caller of the function. A value-returning function should include a return statement, containing an expression.
If an expression is not given on a return statement in a function declared with a non-void return type, the compiler issues an error message.
If the data type of the expression is different from the function return type, conversion of the return value takes place as if the value of the expression were assigned to an object with the same function return type.
Syntax for Return Statement in C++
return[expression];
return; /* Returns no value */
return result; /* Returns the value of result */
return 1; /* Returns the value 1 */
return (x * x); /* Returns the value of x * x */
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/* illustrate Methods returning a value using return statement in C++ code example */
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
// non-void return type
// function to calculate sum
int SUM(int a, int b)
{
int s1 = a + b;
// method using the return
// statement to return a value
return s1;
}
// Driver method
int main()
{
int num1 = 10;
int num2 = 10;
int sum_of = SUM(num1, num2);
cout << "The sum is " << sum_of;
return 0;
}
read() Function in C++
Read block of data. Extracts n characters from the stream and stores them in the array pointed to by s. This function simply copies a block of data, without checking its contents nor appending a null character at the end.
If the input sequence runs out of characters to extract (i.e., the end-of-file is reached) before n characters have been successfully read, the array pointed to by s contains all the characters read until that point, and both the eofbit and failbit flags are set for the stream.
Internally, the function accesses the input sequence by first constructing a sentry object (with noskipws set to true). Then (if good), it extracts characters from its associated stream buffer object as if calling its member functions sbumpc or sgetc, and finally destroys the sentry object before returning.
The number of characters successfully read and stored by this function can be accessed by calling member gcount.
Syntax for read() Function in C++
#include <fstream>
istream& read (char* s, streamsize n);
s
Pointer to an array where the extracted characters are stored.
n
Number of characters to extract. streamsize is a signed integral type.
Function returns the istream object (*this).
Errors are signaled by modifying the internal state flags:
• eofbit: The function stopped extracting characters because the input sequence has no more characters available (end-of-file reached).
• failbit: Either the function could not extract n characters or the construction of sentry failed.
• badbit: Error on stream (such as when this function catches an exception thrown by an internal operation). When set, the integrity of the stream may have been affected.
Multiple flags may be set by a single operation.
If the operation sets an internal state flag that was registered with member exceptions, the function throws an exception of member type failure.
Data races
Modifies the elements in the array pointed to by s and the stream object. Concurrent access to the same stream object may cause data races, except for the standard stream object cin when this is synchronized with stdio (in this case, no data races are initiated, although no guarantees are given on the order in which extracted characters are attributed to threads).
Exception safety
Basic guarantee: if an exception is thrown, the object is in a valid state. It throws an exception of member type failure if the resulting error state flag is not goodbit and member exceptions was set to throw for that state.
Any exception thrown by an internal operation is caught and handled by the function, setting badbit. If badbit was set on the last call to exceptions, the function rethrows the caught exception.
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/* The function read() in <iostream> header file extracts n characters from the stream and stores them in the array pointed to the stream. Unlike functions put() and get() it is usually used to handle the data in binary form. */
/* extracts n characters from the stream and stores them in the array pointed by s with read() function code example. */
#include <iostream>
#include <fstream>
int main () {
std::ifstream is ("test.txt", std::ifstream::binary);
if (is) {
is.seekg (0, is.end);
int length = is.tellg();
is.seekg (0, is.beg);
char * buffer = new char [length];
std::cout << "Reading " << length << " characters... ";
is.read (buffer,length);
if (is)
std::cout << "all characters read successfully.";
else
std::cout << "error: only " << is.gcount() << " could be read";
is.close();
delete[] buffer;
}
return 0;
}
Classes and Objects in C++ Language
The main purpose of C++ programming is to add object orientation to the C programming language and classes are the central feature of C++ that supports object-oriented programming and are often called user-defined types.
A class is used to specify the form of an object and it combines data representation and methods for manipulating that data into one neat package. The data and functions within a class are called members of the class.
C++ Class Definitions
When you define a class, you define a blueprint for a data type. This doesn't actually define any data, but it does define what the class name means, that is, what an object of the class will consist of and what operations can be performed on such an object.
A class definition starts with the keyword class followed by the class name; and the class body, enclosed by a pair of curly braces. A class definition must be followed either by a semicolon or a list of declarations. For example, we defined the Box data type using the keyword class as follows:
class Box {
public:
double length; // Length of a box
double breadth; // Breadth of a box
double height; // Height of a box
};
Define C++ Objects
A class provides the blueprints for objects, so basically an object is created from a class. We declare objects of a class with exactly the same sort of declaration that we declare variables of basic types. Following statements declare two objects of class Box:
Box Box1; // Declare Box1 of type Box
Box Box2; // Declare Box2 of type Box
Accessing the Data Members
The public data members of objects of a class can be accessed using the direct member access operator (.).
It is important to note that private and protected members can not be accessed directly using direct member access operator (.).
Classes and Objects in Detail
There are further interesting concepts related to C++ Classes and Objects which we will discuss in various sub-sections listed below:
• Class Member Functions: A member function of a class is a function that has its definition or its prototype within the class definition like any other variable.
• Class Access Modifiers: A class member can be defined as public, private or protected. By default members would be assumed as private.
• Constructor & Destructor: A class constructor is a special function in a class that is called when a new object of the class is created. A destructor is also a special function which is called when created object is deleted.
• Copy Constructor: The copy constructor is a constructor which creates an object by initializing it with an object of the same class, which has been created previously.
• Friend Functions: A friend function is permitted full access to private and protected members of a class.
• Inline Functions: With an inline function, the compiler tries to expand the code in the body of the function in place of a call to the function.
• this Pointer: Every object has a special pointer this which points to the object itself.
• Pointer to C++ Classes: A pointer to a class is done exactly the same way a pointer to a structure is. In fact a class is really just a structure with functions in it.
• Static Members of a Class: Both data members and function members of a class can be declared as static.
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/* using public and private in C++ Class */
// Program to illustrate the working of
// public and private in C++ Class
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class Room {
private:
double length;
double breadth;
double height;
public:
// function to initialize private variables
void initData(double len, double brth, double hgt) {
length = len;
breadth = brth;
height = hgt;
}
double calculateArea() {
return length * breadth;
}
double calculateVolume() {
return length * breadth * height;
}
};
int main() {
// create object of Room class
Room room1;
// pass the values of private variables as arguments
room1.initData(42.5, 30.8, 19.2);
cout << "Area of Room = " << room1.calculateArea() << endl;
cout << "Volume of Room = " << room1.calculateVolume() << endl;
return 0;
}
write() Function in C++
Write block of data. Inserts the first n characters of the array pointed by s into the stream. This function simply copies a block of data, without checking its contents: The array may contain null characters, which are also copied without stopping the copying process.
Internally, the function accesses the output sequence by first constructing a sentry object.
Then (if good), it inserts character into its associated stream buffer object as if calling its member function sputc until n characters have been written or until an insertion fails (in this case it sets the badbit flag).
Finally, it destroys the sentry object before returning.
Syntax for write() Function in C++
#include <fstream>
ostream& write (const char* s, streamsize n);
s
Pointer to an array of at least n characters.
n
Number of characters to insert. Integer value of type streamsize representing the size in characters of the block of data to write. streamsize is a signed integral type.
Function returns the ostream object (*this).
Errors are signaled by modifying the internal state flags:
• eofbit: -
• failbit: May be set if the construction of sentry failed.
• badbit: Either an insertion on the stream failed, or some other error happened (such as when this function catches an exception thrown by an internal operation). When set, the integrity of the stream may have been affected.
Multiple flags may be set by a single operation.
If the operation sets an internal state flag that was registered with member exceptions, the function throws an exception of member type failure.
Data races
Access up to n characters pointed by s. Modifies the stream object.
Concurrent access to the same stream object may cause data races, except for the standard stream objects (cout, cerr, clog) when these are synchronized with stdio (in this case, no data races are initiated, although no guarantees are given on the order in which characters from multiple threads are inserted).
Exception safety
Basic guarantee: if an exception is thrown, the object is in a valid state. It throws an exception of member type failure if the resulting error state flag is not goodbit and member exceptions was set to throw for that state.
Any exception thrown by an internal operation is caught and handled by the function, setting badbit. If badbit was set on the last call to exceptions, the function rethrows the caught exception.
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/* write block of data by ostream::write function code example */
/* in order to perform a binary input/output operation using the read() and write() functions, C++ provides us a few file stream classes */
// Copy a file
#include <fstream> // std::ifstream, std::ofstream
int main () {
std::ifstream infile ("test.txt",std::ifstream::binary);
std::ofstream outfile ("new.txt",std::ofstream::binary);
// get size of file
infile.seekg (0,infile.end);
long size = infile.tellg();
infile.seekg (0);
// allocate memory for file content
char* buffer = new char[size];
// read content of infile
infile.read (buffer,size);
// write to outfile
outfile.write (buffer,size);
// release dynamically-allocated memory
delete[] buffer;
outfile.close();
infile.close();
return 0;
}
#include Directive in C++
#include is a way of including a standard or user-defined file in the program and is mostly written at the beginning of any C/C++ program. This directive is read by the preprocessor and orders it to insert the content of a user-defined or system header file into the following program. These files are mainly imported from an outside source into the current program. The process of importing such files that might be system-defined or user-defined is known as File Inclusion. This type of preprocessor directive tells the compiler to include a file in the source code program.
Syntax for #include Directive in C++
#include "user-defined_file"
#include <header_file>
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/* using #include directive in C language */
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
/*
* C standard library printf function
* defined in the stdio.h header file
*/
printf("I love you Clementine");
printf("I love you so much");
printf("HappyCodings");
return 0;
}
main() Function in C++
A program shall contain a global function named main, which is the designated start of the program in hosted environment. main() function is the entry point of any C++ program. It is the point at which execution of program is started. When a C++ program is executed, the execution control goes directly to the main() function. Every C++ program have a main() function.
Syntax for main() Function in C++
void main()
{
............
............
}
void
void is a keyword in C++ language, void means nothing, whenever we use void as a function return type then that function nothing return. here main() function no return any value.
main
main is a name of function which is predefined function in C++ library.
In place of void we can also use int return type of main() function, at that time main() return integer type value.
1) It cannot be used anywhere in the program
a) in particular, it cannot be called recursively
b) its address cannot be taken
2) It cannot be predefined and cannot be overloaded: effectively, the name main in the global namespace is reserved for functions (although it can be used to name classes, namespaces, enumerations, and any entity in a non-global namespace, except that a function called "main" cannot be declared with C language linkage in any namespace).
3) It cannot be defined as deleted or (since C++11) declared with C language linkage, constexpr (since C++11), consteval (since C++20), inline, or static.
4) The body of the main function does not need to contain the return statement: if control reaches the end of main without encountering a return statement, the effect is that of executing return 0;.
5) Execution of the return (or the implicit return upon reaching the end of main) is equivalent to first leaving the function normally (which destroys the objects with automatic storage duration) and then calling std::exit with the same argument as the argument of the return. (std::exit then destroys static objects and terminates the program).
6) (since C++14) The return type of the main function cannot be deduced (auto main() {... is not allowed).
7) (since C++20) The main function cannot be a coroutine.
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/* simple code example by main() function in C++ */
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int day = 4;
switch (day) {
case 1:
cout << "Monday";
break;
case 2:
cout << "Tuesday";
break;
case 3:
cout << "Wednesday";
break;
case 4:
cout << "Thursday";
break;
case 5:
cout << "Friday";
break;
case 6:
cout << "Saturday";
break;
case 7:
cout << "Sunday";
break;
}
return 0;
}
Constructors in C++ Language
In C++, constructor is a special method which is invoked automatically at the time of object creation. It is used to initialize the data members of new object generally. The constructor in C++ has the same name as class or structure.
Constructors are special class functions which performs initialization of every object. The Compiler calls the Constructor whenever an object is created. Constructors initialize values to object members after storage is allocated to the object.
Whereas, Destructor on the other hand is used to destroy the class object.
• Default Constructor: A constructor which has no argument is known as default constructor. It is invoked at the time of creating object.
Syntax for Default Constructor in C++
class_name(parameter1, parameter2, ...)
{
// constructor Definition
}
Syntax for Parameterized Constructor in C++
class class_name
{
public:
class_name(variables) //Parameterized constructor declared.
{
}
};
Syntax for Copy Constructors in C++
classname (const classname &obj) {
// body of constructor
}
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/* A constructor is a special type of member function that is called automatically when an object is created. In C++, a constructor has the same name as that of the class and it does not have a return type. */
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
// declare a class
class Wall {
private:
double length;
double height;
public:
// initialize variables with parameterized constructor
Wall(double len, double hgt) {
length = len;
height = hgt;
}
// copy constructor with a Wall object as parameter
// copies data of the obj parameter
Wall(Wall &obj) {
length = obj.length;
height = obj.height;
}
double calculateArea() {
return length * height;
}
};
int main() {
// create an object of Wall class
Wall wall1(10.5, 8.6);
// copy contents of wall1 to wall2
Wall wall2 = wall1;
// print areas of wall1 and wall2
cout << "Area of Wall 1: " << wall1.calculateArea() << endl;
cout << "Area of Wall 2: " << wall2.calculateArea();
return 0;
}
Arithmetic operators: +, -, *, /, %, addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, modulo. Assignments operators in C++ are: =, +=, -=, *=, /=, %=. Auto increment and decrement
In C++ programming, you have to ask to the user to enter the desired decimal number to convert it into hexadecimal number to print the equivalent value in hexadecimal format
This algorithm takes the input of the number of 'vertex and edges'. Then it takes the input of connected vertex pairs. Print the incidence list representation of the graph. And for each
Bipartite Graph is a graph in which the set of 'vertices' can be divided into 2 sets such that all vertex should be present in either set 1 or set 2 but not both, and there should no edge