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C++ Programming Code Examples

C++ > Data Structures Code Examples

Program to Implement Hash Tables with Double Hashing

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/* Program to Implement Hash Tables with Double Hashing */ #include <iostream> #include <cstdlib> #define MIN_TABLE_SIZE 10 using namespace std; /* Node Type Declaration */ enum EntryType {Legitimate, Empty, Deleted}; /* Node Declaration */ struct HashNode { int element; enum EntryType info; }; /* Table Declaration */ struct HashTable { int size; HashNode *table; }; /* Function to Genereate First Hash */ int HashFunc1(int key, int size) { return key % size; } /* Function to Genereate Second Hash */ int HashFunc2(int key, int size) { return (key * size - 1) % size; } /* Function to Initialize Table */ HashTable *initializeTable(int size) { HashTable *htable; if (size < MIN_TABLE_SIZE) { cout<<"Table Size Too Small"<<endl; return NULL; } htable = new HashTable; if (htable == NULL) { cout<<"Out of Space"<<endl; return NULL; } htable->size = size; htable->table = new HashNode [htable->size]; if (htable->table == NULL) { cout<<"Table Size Too Small"<<endl; return NULL; } for (int i = 0; i < htable->size; i++) { htable->table[i].info = Empty; htable->table[i].element = NULL; } return htable; } /* Function to Find Element from the table */ int Find(int key, HashTable *htable) { int hashVal= HashFunc1(key, htable->size); int stepSize= HashFunc2(key, htable->size); while (htable->table[hashVal].info != Empty && htable->table[hashVal].element != key) { hashVal = hashVal + stepSize; hashVal = hashVal % htable->size; } return hashVal; } /* Function to Insert Element into the table */ void Insert(int key, HashTable *htable) { int pos = Find(key, htable); if (htable->table[pos].info != Legitimate ) { htable->table[pos].info = Legitimate; htable->table[pos].element = key; } } /* Function to Rehash the table */ HashTable *Rehash(HashTable *htable) { int size = htable->size; HashNode *table = htable->table; htable = initializeTable(2 * size); for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) { if (table[i].info == Legitimate) Insert(table[i].element, htable); } free(table); return htable; } /* Function to Retrieve the table */ void Retrieve(HashTable *htable) { for (int i = 0; i < htable->size; i++) { int value = htable->table[i].element; if (!value) cout<<"Position: "<<i + 1<<" Element: Null"<<endl; else cout<<"Position: "<<i + 1<<" Element: "<<value<<endl; } } /* Main Contains Menu */ int main() { int value, size, pos, i = 1; int choice; HashTable *htable; while(1) { cout<<"\n----------------------"<<endl; cout<<"Operations on Double Hashing"<<endl; cout<<"\n----------------------"<<endl; cout<<"1.Initialize size of the table"<<endl; cout<<"2.Insert element into the table"<<endl; cout<<"3.Display Hash Table"<<endl; cout<<"4.Rehash The Table"<<endl; cout<<"5.Exit"<<endl; cout<<"Enter your choice: "; cin>>choice; switch(choice) { case 1: cout<<"Enter size of the Hash Table: "; cin>>size; htable = initializeTable(size); break; case 2: if (i > htable->size) { cout<<"Table is Full, Rehash the table"<<endl; continue; } cout<<"Enter element to be inserted: "; cin>>value; Insert(value, htable); i++; break; case 3: Retrieve(htable); break; case 4: htable = Rehash(htable); break; case 5: exit(1); default: cout<<"\nEnter correct option\n"; } } return 0; }

In the C++ Programming Language, the #define directive allows the definition of macros within your source code. These macro definitions allow constant values to be declared for use throughout your code. Macro definitions are not variables and cannot be changed by your program code like variables. You generally use this syntax when creating constants that represent numbers, strings or expressions. The syntax for creating a constant using #define in the C++ is: #define token value

Consider a situation, when we have two persons with the same name, jhon, in the same class. Whenever we need to differentiate them definitely we would have to use some additional information along with their name, like either the area, if they live in different area or their mother's or father's name, etc. Same situation can arise in your C++ applications. For example, you might be writing some code that has a function called xyz() and there is another library available which is also having same function xyz(). Now the compiler has no way of knowing which version of xyz() function you are referring to within your code.

Continue statement is used inside loops. Whenever a continue statement is encountered inside a loop, control directly jumps to the beginning of the loop for next iteration, skipping the execution of statements inside loop's body for the current iteration. The continue statement works somewhat like the break statement. Instead of forcing termination, however, continue forces the next iteration of the loop to take place, skipping any code in between. For the for loop, continue causes the conditional test and increment portions of the loop to execute. For the while and do...while loops, program control passes to the conditional tests.

Switch statement in C tests the value of a variable and compares it with multiple cases. Once the case match is found, a block of statements associated with that particular case is executed. Each case in a block of a switch has a different name/number which is referred to as an identifier. The value provided by the user is compared with all the cases inside the switch block until the match is found. If a case match is NOT found, then the default statement is executed, and the control goes out of the switch block. • The expression can be integer expression or a character expression. • Value-1, 2, n are case labels which are used to identify each case individually. Remember that case labels should not be same as it may create a problem while executing a program. Suppose we have two cases with the same label as '1'. Then while executing the program, the case that appears first will be executed even though you want the program to execute a second case. This creates problems in the program and

A program shall contain a global function named main, which is the designated start of the program in hosted environment. main() function is the entry point of any C++ program. It is the point at which execution of program is started. When a C++ program is executed, the execution control goes directly to the main() function. Every C++ program have a main() function.

In while loop, condition is evaluated first and if it returns true then the statements inside while loop execute, this happens repeatedly until the condition returns false. When condition returns false, the control comes out of loop and jumps to the next statement in the program after while loop. The important point to note when using while loop is that we need to use increment or decrement statement inside while loop so that the loop variable gets changed on each iteration, and at some point condition returns false. This way we can end the execution of while loop otherwise the loop would execute indefinitely. A while loop that never stops is said to be the infinite while loop, when we give the condition in such a way so that it never returns false, then the loops becomes infinite and repeats itself indefinitely.

In C++, classes and structs are blueprints that are used to create the instance of a class. Structs are used for lightweight objects such as Rectangle, color, Point, etc. Unlike class, structs in C++ are value type than reference type. It is useful if you have data that is not intended to be modified after creation of struct. C++ Structure is a collection of different data types. It is similar to the class that holds different types of data. A structure is declared by preceding the struct keyword followed by the identifier(structure name). Inside the curly braces, we can declare the member variables of different types.

The exit function terminates the program normally. Automatic objects are not destroyed, but static objects are. Then, all functions registered with atexit are called in the opposite order of registration. The code is returned to the operating system. An exit code of 0 or EXIT_SUCCESS means successful completion. If code is EXIT_FAILURE, an indication of program failure is returned to the operating system. Other values of code are implementation-defined. Calls all functions registered with the atexit() function, and destroys C++ objects with static storage duration, all in last-in-first-out (LIFO) order. C++ objects with static storage duration are destroyed in the reverse order of the completion of their constructor. (Automatic objects are not destroyed as a result of calling exit().)

The cin object is used to accept input from the standard input device i.e. keyboard. It is defined in the iostream header file. C++ cin statement is the instance of the class istream and is used to read input from the standard input device which is usually a keyboard. The extraction operator(>>) is used along with the object cin for reading inputs. The extraction operator extracts the data from the object cin which is entered using the keyboard. The "c" in cin refers to "character" and "in" means "input". Hence cin means "character input". The cin object is used along with the extraction operator >> in order to receive a stream of characters.

Break statement in C++ is a loop control statement defined using the break keyword. It is used to stop the current execution and proceed with the next one. When a compiler calls the break statement, it immediately stops the execution of the loop and transfers the control outside the loop and executes the other statements. In the case of a nested loop, break the statement stops the execution of the inner loop and proceeds with the outer loop. The statement itself says it breaks the loop. When the break statement is called in the program, it immediately terminates the loop and transfers the flow control to the statement mentioned outside the loop.

#include is a way of including a standard or user-defined file in the program and is mostly written at the beginning of any C/C++ program. This directive is read by the preprocessor and orders it to insert the content of a user-defined or system header file into the following program. These files are mainly imported from an outside source into the current program. The process of importing such files that might be system-defined or user-defined is known as File Inclusion. This type of preprocessor directive tells the compiler to include a file in the source code program.

Deallocate memory block. A block of memory previously allocated by a call to malloc, calloc or realloc is deallocated, making it available again for further allocations. If ptr does not point to a block of memory allocated with the above functions, it causes undefined behavior. If ptr is a null pointer, the function does nothing. Notice that this function does not change the value of ptr itself, hence it still points to the same (now invalid) location. free() function in C++ <cstdlib> library is used to deallocate a memory block in C++. Whenever we call malloc, calloc or realloc function to allocate a memory block dynamically in C++, compiler allocates a block of size bytes of memory and returns a pointer to the start of the block. The new memory block allocated is not initialized but have intermediate values. free() method is used to free such block of memory. In case the pointer mentioned does not point to any memory block then it may lead to an undefined behavior, but does nothing in case of null

Allocate storage space. Default allocation functions (single-object form). A new operator is used to create the object while a delete operator is used to delete the object. When the object is created by using the new operator, then the object will exist until we explicitly use the delete operator to delete the object. Therefore, we can say that the lifetime of the object is not related to the block structure of the program.

The cout is a predefined object of ostream class. It is connected with the standard output device, which is usually a display screen. The cout is used in conjunction with stream insertion operator (<<) to display the output on a console. On most program environments, the standard output by default is the screen, and the C++ stream object defined to access it is cout. The "c" in cout refers to "character" and "out" means "output". Hence cout means "character output". The cout object is used along with the insertion operator << in order to display a stream of characters.

Enumeration is a user defined datatype in C/C++ language. It is used to assign names to the integral constants which makes a program easy to read and maintain. The keyword "enum" is used to declare an enumeration. It can be used for days of the week (SUNDAY, MONDAY, TUESDAY, WEDNESDAY, THURSDAY, FRIDAY and SATURDAY) , directions (NORTH, SOUTH, EAST and WEST) etc. The C++ enum constants are static and final implicitly. C++ Enums can be thought of as classes that have fixed set of constants.

A predefined object of the class called iostream class is used to insert the new line characters while flushing the stream is called endl in C++. This endl is similar to \n which performs the functionality of inserting new line characters but it does not flush the stream whereas endl does the job of inserting the new line characters while flushing the stream. Hence the statement cout<<endl; will be equal to the statement cout<< '\n' << flush; meaning the new line character used along with flush explicitly becomes equivalent to the endl statement in C++.

In computer programming, loops are used to repeat a block of code. For example, when you are displaying number from 1 to 100 you may want set the value of a variable to 1 and display it 100 times, increasing its value by 1 on each loop iteration. When you know exactly how many times you want to loop through a block of code, use the for loop instead of a while loop. A for loop is a repetition control structure that allows you to efficiently write a loop that needs to execute a specific number of times.

In computer programming, we use the if statement to run a block code only when a certain condition is met. An if statement can be followed by an optional else statement, which executes when the boolean expression is false. There are three forms of if...else statements in C++: • if statement, • if...else statement, • if...else if...else statement, The if statement evaluates the condition inside the parentheses ( ). If the condition evaluates to true, the code inside the body of if is executed. If the condition evaluates to false, the code inside the body of if is skipped.



This C++ program, displays the traversal of a "binary search tree" in inorder,postorder and preorder mode using "Linked Lists". A linked list is an ordered set of 'data elements', each




Example to print all 'prime numbers' between two numbers in C++ Language. This problem is solved using nested for loop and if...else. In this program, the while loop is iterated times.