C++ Programming Code Examples

Consider a situation, when we have two persons with the same name, jhon, in the same class. Whenever we need to differentiate them definitely we would have to use some additional information along with their name, like either the area, if they live in different area or their mother's or father's name, etc. Same situation can arise in your C++ applications. For example, you might be writing some code that has a function called xyz() and there is another library available which is also having same function xyz(). Now the compiler has no way of knowing which version of xyz() function you are referring to within your code. A namespace is designed to overcome this difficulty and is used as additional information to differentiate similar functions, classes, variables etc. with the same name available in different libraries. Using namespace, you can define the context in which names are defined. In essence, a namespace defines a scope. A namespace definition begins with the keyword namespace followed by the namespace name as follows: To call the namespace-enabled version of either function or variable, prepend (::) the namespace name as follows: You can also avoid prepending of namespaces with the using namespace directive. This directive tells the compiler that the subsequent code is making use of names in the specified namespace. A namespace can be defined in several parts and so a namespace is made up of the sum of its separately defined parts. The separate parts of a namespace can be spread over multiple files. So, if one part of the namespace requires a name defined in another file, that name must still be declared. Writing a following namespace definition either defines a new namespace or adds new elements to an existing one: Namespaces can be nested where you can define one namespace inside another name space as follows: • Namespace is a feature added in C++ and not present in C. • A namespace is a declarative region that provides a scope to the identifiers (names of the types, function, variables etc) inside it. • Multiple namespace blocks with the same name are allowed. All declarations within those blocks are declared in the named scope. • Namespace declarations appear only at global scope. • Namespace declarations can be nested within another namespace. • Namespace declarations don't have access specifiers. (Public or private) • No need to give semicolon after the closing brace of definition of namespace. • We can split the definition of namespace over several units.

Find content in string. Searches the string for the first occurrence of the sequence specified by its arguments. When pos is specified, the search only includes characters at or after position pos, ignoring any possible occurrences that include characters before pos. Notice that unlike member find_first_of, whenever more than one character is being searched for, it is not enough that just one of these characters match, but the entire sequence must match. Another string with the subject to search for. Position of the first character in the string to be considered in the search. If this is greater than the string length, the function never finds matches. Note: The first character is denoted by a value of 0 (not 1): A value of 0 means that the entire string is searched. Pointer to an array of characters. If argument n is specified (3), the sequence to match are the first n characters in the array. Otherwise (2), a null-terminated sequence is expected: the length of the sequence to match is determined by the first occurrence of a null character. Length of sequence of characters to match. Individual character to be searched for. size_t is an unsigned integral type (the same as member type string::size_type). Function returns the position of the first character of the first match. If no matches were found, the function returns string::npos. size_t is an unsigned integral type (the same as member type string::size_type). Unspecified, but generally up to linear in length()-pos times the length of the sequence to match (worst case). No changes The object is accessed If s does not point to an array long enough, it causes undefined behavior. Otherwise, the function never throws exceptions (no-throw guarantee).

Get line from stream into string. The cin is an object which is used to take input from the user but does not allow to take the input in multiple lines. To accept the multiple lines, we use the getline() function. It is a pre-defined function defined in a <string.h> header file used to accept a line or a string from the input stream until the delimiting character is encountered. istream object from which characters are extracted. string object where the extracted line is stored. The contents in the string before the call (if any) are discarded and replaced by the extracted line. It is the delimiting character. Extracts characters from is and stores them into str until the delimitation character delim is found (or the newline character, '\n', for (2)). The extraction also stops if the end of file is reached in is or if some other error occurs during the input operation. If the delimiter is found, it is extracted and discarded (i.e. it is not stored and the next input operation will begin after it). Note that any content in str before the call is replaced by the newly extracted sequence. Each extracted character is appended to the string as if its member push_back was called. Function returns the same as parameter is. A call to this function may set any of the internal state flags of is if: eofbit: The end of the source of characters is reached during its operations. failbit: The input obtained could not be interpreted as a valid textual representation of an object of this type. In this case, distr preserves the parameters and internal data it had before the call. Notice that some eofbit cases will also set failbit. badbit: An error other than the above happened. (see ios_base::iostate for more info on these) Additionally, in any of these cases, if the appropriate flag has been set with is's member function ios::exceptions, an exception of type ios_base::failure is thrown. Unspecified, but generally linear in the resulting length of str. Any iterators, pointers and references related to str may be invalidated. Both objects, is and str, are modified. Basic guarantee: if an exception is thrown, both is and str end up in a valid state.

Strings are objects that represent sequences of characters. The standard string class provides support for such objects with an interface similar to that of a standard container of bytes, but adding features specifically designed to operate with strings of single-byte characters. The string class is an instantiation of the basic_string class template that uses char (i.e., bytes) as its character type, with its default char_traits and allocator types. Note that this class handles bytes independently of the encoding used: If used to handle sequences of multi-byte or variable-length characters (such as UTF-8), all members of this class (such as length or size), as well as its iterators, will still operate in terms of bytes (not actual encoded characters). In C programming, the collection of characters is stored in the form of arrays. This is also supported in C++ programming. Hence it's called C-strings. C-strings are arrays of type char terminated with null character, that is, \0 (ASCII value of null character is 0). • A character array is simply an array of characters that can be terminated by a null character. A string is a class that defines objects that be represented as a stream of characters. • The size of the character array has to be allocated statically, more memory cannot be allocated at run time if required. Unused allocated memory is wasted in the case of the character array. In the case of strings, memory is allocated dynamically. More memory can be allocated at run time on demand. As no memory is preallocated, no memory is wasted. • There is a threat of array decay in the case of the character array. As strings are represented as objects, no array decay occurs. • Implementation of character array is faster than std:: string. Strings are slower when compared to implementation than character array. • Character arrays do not offer many inbuilt functions to manipulate strings. String class defines a number of functionalities that allow manifold operations on strings. • int compare(const string& str): It is used to compare two string objects. • int length(): It is used to find the length of the string. • void swap(string& str): It is used to swap the values of two string objects. • string substr(int pos,int n): It creates a new string object of n characters. • int size(): It returns the length of the string in terms of bytes. • void resize(int n): It is used to resize the length of the string up to n characters. • string& replace(int pos,int len,string& str): It replaces portion of the string that begins at character position pos and spans len characters. • string& append(const string& str): It adds new characters at the end of another string object. • char& at(int pos): It is used to access an individual character at specified position pos. • int find(string& str,int pos,int n): It is used to find the string specified in the parameter. • int find_first_of(string& str,int pos,int n): It is used to find the first occurrence of the specified sequence. • int find_first_not_of(string& str,int pos,int n ): It is used to search the string for the first character that does not match with any of the characters specified in the string. • int find_last_of(string& str,int pos,int n): It is used to search the string for the last character of specified sequence. • int find_last_not_of(string& str,int pos): It searches for the last character that does not match with the specified sequence. • string& insert(): It inserts a new character before the character indicated by the position pos. • int max_size(): It finds the maximum length of the string. • void push_back(char ch): It adds a new character ch at the end of the string. • void pop_back(): It removes a last character of the string. • string& assign(): It assigns new value to the string. • int copy(string& str): It copies the contents of string into another. • char& back(): It returns the reference of last character. • Iterator begin(): It returns the reference of first character. • int capacity(): It returns the allocated space for the string. • const_iterator cbegin(): It points to the first element of the string. • const_iterator cend(): It points to the last element of the string. • void clear(): It removes all the elements from the string. • const_reverse_iterator crbegin(): It points to the last character of the string. • const_char* data(): It copies the characters of string into an array. • bool empty(): It checks whether the string is empty or not. • string& erase(): It removes the characters as specified. • char& front(): It returns a reference of the first character. • string& operator+=(): It appends a new character at the end of the string. • string& operator=(): It assigns a new value to the string. • char operator[](pos): It retrieves a character at specified position pos. • int rfind(): It searches for the last occurrence of the string. • iterator end(): It references the last character of the string. • reverse_iterator rend(): It points to the first character of the string. • void shrink_to_fit(): It reduces the capacity and makes it equal to the size of the string. • char* c_str(): It returns pointer to an array that contains null terminated sequence of characters. • const_reverse_iterator crend(): It references the first character of the string. • reverse_iterator rbegin(): It reference the last character of the string. • void reserve(inr len): It requests a change in capacity. • allocator_type get_allocator();: It returns the allocated object associated with the string. • operator+ Concatenate strings (function ) • relational operators Relational operators for string (function ) • swap Exchanges the values of two strings (function ) • operator>> Extract string from stream (function ) • operator<< Insert string into stream (function ) • getline Get line from stream into string (function ) • =: assignment • +: concatenation • ==: Equality • !=: Inequality • <: Less than • <=: Less than or equal • >: Greater than • >=: Greater than or equal • []: Subscription • <<: Output • >>: Input

In computer programming, we use the if statement to run a block code only when a certain condition is met. An if statement can be followed by an optional else statement, which executes when the boolean expression is false. There are three forms of if...else statements in C++: • if statement, • if...else statement, • if...else if...else statement, The if statement evaluates the condition inside the parentheses ( ). If the condition evaluates to true, the code inside the body of if is executed. If the condition evaluates to false, the code inside the body of if is skipped. The if..else statement evaluates the condition inside the parenthesis. If the condition evaluates true, the code inside the body of if is executed, the code inside the body of else is skipped from execution. If the condition evaluates false, the code inside the body of else is executed, the code inside the body of if is skipped from execution. The if...else statement is used to execute a block of code among two alternatives. However, if we need to make a choice between more than two alternatives, we use the if...else if...else statement. • If condition1 evaluates to true, the code block 1 is executed. • If condition1 evaluates to false, then condition2 is evaluated. • If condition2 is true, the code block 2 is executed. • If condition2 is false, the code block 3 is executed. There can be more than one else if statement but only one if and else statements. In C/C++ if-else-if ladder helps user decide from among multiple options. The C/C++ if statements are executed from the top down. As soon as one of the conditions controlling the if is true, the statement associated with that if is executed, and the rest of the C else-if ladder is bypassed. If none of the conditions is true, then the final else statement will be executed. Working of the if-else-if ladder: 1. Control falls into the if block. 2. The flow jumps to Condition 1. 3. Condition is tested. If Condition yields true, goto Step 4. If Condition yields false, goto Step 5. 4. The present block is executed. Goto Step 7. 5. The flow jumps to Condition 2. If Condition yields true, goto step 4. If Condition yields false, goto Step 6. 6. The flow jumps to Condition 3. If Condition yields true, goto step 4. If Condition yields false, execute else block. Goto Step 7. 7. Exits the if-else-if ladder. • The if else ladder statement in C++ programming language is used to check set of conditions in sequence. • This is useful when we want to selectively executes one code block(out of many) based on certain conditions. • It allows us to check for multiple condition expressions and execute different code blocks for more than two conditions. • A condition expression is tested only when all previous if conditions in if-else ladder is false. • If any of the conditional expression evaluates to true, then it will execute the corresponding code block and exits whole if-else ladder.

The cout is a predefined object of ostream class. It is connected with the standard output device, which is usually a display screen. The cout is used in conjunction with stream insertion operator (<<) to display the output on a console. On most program environments, the standard output by default is the screen, and the C++ stream object defined to access it is cout. The syntax of the cout object in C++: cout << var_name; Or cout << "Some String"; is the insertion operator is usually a variable, but can also be an array element or elements of containers like vectors, lists, maps, etc. The "c" in cout refers to "character" and "out" means "output". Hence cout means "character output". The cout object is used along with the insertion operator << in order to display a stream of characters. The << operator can be used more than once with a combination of variables, strings, and manipulators. cout is used for displaying data on the screen. The operator << called as insertion operator or put to operator. The Insertion operator can be overloaded. Insertion operator is similar to the printf() operation in C. cout is the object of ostream class. Data flow direction is from variable to output device. Multiple outputs can be displayed using cout.

In while loop, condition is evaluated first and if it returns true then the statements inside while loop execute, this happens repeatedly until the condition returns false. When condition returns false, the control comes out of loop and jumps to the next statement in the program after while loop. The important point to note when using while loop is that we need to use increment or decrement statement inside while loop so that the loop variable gets changed on each iteration, and at some point condition returns false. This way we can end the execution of while loop otherwise the loop would execute indefinitely. A while loop that never stops is said to be the infinite while loop, when we give the condition in such a way so that it never returns false, then the loops becomes infinite and repeats itself indefinitely. • A while loop evaluates the condition • If the condition evaluates to true, the code inside the while loop is executed. • The condition is evaluated again. • This process continues until the condition is false. • When the condition evaluates to false, the loop terminates. Do not forget to increase the variable used in the condition, otherwise the loop will never end!

A program shall contain a global function named main, which is the designated start of the program in hosted environment. main() function is the entry point of any C++ program. It is the point at which execution of program is started. When a C++ program is executed, the execution control goes directly to the main() function. Every C++ program have a main() function. void is a keyword in C++ language, void means nothing, whenever we use void as a function return type then that function nothing return. here main() function no return any value. main is a name of function which is predefined function in C++ library. In place of void we can also use int return type of main() function, at that time main() return integer type value. 1) It cannot be used anywhere in the program a) in particular, it cannot be called recursively b) its address cannot be taken 2) It cannot be predefined and cannot be overloaded: effectively, the name main in the global namespace is reserved for functions (although it can be used to name classes, namespaces, enumerations, and any entity in a non-global namespace, except that a function called "main" cannot be declared with C language linkage in any namespace). 3) It cannot be defined as deleted or (since C++11) declared with C language linkage, constexpr (since C++11), consteval (since C++20), inline, or static. 4) The body of the main function does not need to contain the return statement: if control reaches the end of main without encountering a return statement, the effect is that of executing return 0;. 5) Execution of the return (or the implicit return upon reaching the end of main) is equivalent to first leaving the function normally (which destroys the objects with automatic storage duration) and then calling std::exit with the same argument as the argument of the return. (std::exit then destroys static objects and terminates the program). 6) (since C++14) The return type of the main function cannot be deduced (auto main() {... is not allowed). 7) (since C++20) The main function cannot be a coroutine.

#include is a way of including a standard or user-defined file in the program and is mostly written at the beginning of any C/C++ program. This directive is read by the preprocessor and orders it to insert the content of a user-defined or system header file into the following program. These files are mainly imported from an outside source into the current program. The process of importing such files that might be system-defined or user-defined is known as File Inclusion. This type of preprocessor directive tells the compiler to include a file in the source code program. Including using " ": When using the double quotes(" "), the preprocessor access the current directory in which the source "header_file" is located. This type is mainly used to access any header files of the user's program or user-defined files. Including using <>: While importing file using angular brackets(<>), the the preprocessor uses a predetermined directory path to access the file. It is mainly used to access system header files located in the standard system directories. Header File or Standard files: This is a file which contains C/C++ function declarations and macro definitions to be shared between several source files. Functions like the printf(), scanf(), cout, cin and various other input-output or other standard functions are contained within different header files. So to utilise those functions, the users need to import a few header files which define the required functions. User-defined files: These files resembles the header files, except for the fact that they are written and defined by the user itself. This saves the user from writing a particular function multiple times. Once a user-defined file is written, it can be imported anywhere in the program using the #include preprocessor. • In #include directive, comments are not recognized. So in case of #include <a//b>, a//b is treated as filename. • In #include directive, backslash is considered as normal text not escape sequence. So in case of #include <a\nb>, a\nb is treated as filename. • You can use only comment after filename otherwise it will give error.